Peristalis Movement

Peristalis Movement is a reflex response that is initiated when the gut wall is stretched by the contents of the lumen
A contractile ring appears around the gut and then moves forward
Peristalsis is an inherent property of many syncytial smooth muscle tubes;
The usual stimulus for intestinal peristalsis is distention of the gut.

BIOSYNTHESIS of Catecholamines

Overview
- biosynthesis of catecholamines is done in 3 (4) steps

TYROSINE
      | tyrosine hydroxylase
DOPA
      | DOPA decarboxylase
DOPAMINE
      | dopamine beta-hydroxylase
NORADRENALINE
      | phenylethanolamide N-methyltransferase (“PNMT”)
ADRENALINE
- , thus there are 3 (4) enzymes involved in catecholamine biosynthesis

ENZYME NAME

DESCRIPTION



TYROSINE HYDROXYLASE

- the rate-limiting step
- located in the cytoplasm of sympathetic postsynaptic neurons

DOPA DECARBOXYLASE

DOPAMINE BETA-HYDROXYLASE
PNMT

- general enzyme located in the cytoplasm of most cells
- catalyses decarboxylation of aromatic amino acids
- located in the synaptic vesicles of postsynaptic sympathetic nerve terminals
- located in the a-cells of the adrenal medulla

Relevant Drugs
- 3 types

DRUG NAME

DESCRIPTION



ALPHA-METHYLTYROSINE

METHYLDOPA

General information
- a tyrosine hydroxylase inhibitor
- inhibits tyrosine hydroxylase, thus causing inhibition of catecholamine synthesis
Clinical use
- treatment of pheochromocytoma (a catecholamine-
producing adrenal medullary tumor)
Side effects
- hypotension (due to vasodilation)
- drowsiness
General information
- a central DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor (may cross the blood-brain barrier)
- alternate substrate for DOPA decarboxylase , thus displacing DOPA from the active site of DOPA decarboxylase and following inhibition of catecholamine synthesis
- is converted by DOPA decarboxylase to methylnoradrenalin (a selective alpha-2 agonist, see 19)
Clinical use
- treatment of hypertension during pregnancy (by
inhibition of the sympathetic nuclei of the brainstem)
Side effects
- same as alpha-methyltyrosine (see above)

CARBIDOPA
- impotency
- hypersensitivity reactions
General information
- a peripheral DOPA decarboxylase inhibitor (may not
pass the blood-brain barrier)
Clinical use
- treatment of parkinson’s disease (by inhibition of the
use of DOPA for catecholamine synthesis in
peripheral neurons, thus freeing it for restorement of
 the dopaminergic pathways of the brain
 

Japan’s Earth Quake and Tsunami is the costliest Natural disaster!!!

The Japanese government on Wednesday estimated the direct damage from a deadly earthquake and tsunami that struck the country's northeast this month at as much as $310 billion, making it the world's expensive natural disaster.

The first official damage estimates will serve to map out disaster relief plans and emergency budgets to fund recovery costs.

Tokyo said the estimate covered damage to roads, homes, factories and other infrastructure, and eclipses the losses incurred by other natural disasters such as the 1995 Kobe quake and Hurricane Katrina in 2005.

The figure could go even higher, as the estimate does not include losses in economic activity from planned power outages or the broader impact of a crisis at a stricken nuclear power plant in Fukushima, which economists say pose the biggest risks to the economy.

"The impact from the planned power outages is likely to be significant," Fumihira Nishizaki, director of macroeconomic analysis at the Cabinet Office told reporters.

The upper end of the 16-25 trillion yen ($197-308 billion) estimate range would amount to about 6 percent of Japan's gross domestic product.

"This quake will cause the condition of Japan's economy and output to be severe," Bank of Japan Governor Masaaki Shirakawa told a parliamentary committee.

Speaking separately, central bank board member Ryuzo Miyao repeated the bank's pledge to take appropriate policy action if needed to support the world's third-largest economy.

"We need to be mindful that the quake's negative impact on the economy, at least on the supply side, may be bigger than the Kobe quake 16 years ago, and be prolonged," he added.

In its initial response to the disaster, the central bank doubled the funds earmarked for purchases of a range of assets and started pumping record amounts of cash into the money market to prevent it from seizing up.

It later followed up by joining forces with other G7 central banks in a rare coordinated move to keep a rallying yen from inflicting further damage to the economy.

Introduction to GI physiology

Lies in the wall of the gut, beginning in the esophagus and extending all the way to the anus.

no of neurons in this enteric system is almost exactly equal to the no in the entire spinal cord (100 million)

The enteric nervous system is composed mainly of two plexuses

myenteric plexus or Auerbach’s plexus, and the submucosal plexus or Meissner’s plexus, that lies in the submucosa.

Myenteric plexus

consists mostly of a linear chain of many interconnecting neurons.

is concerned mainly with controlling muscle activity along the length of the gut

Stimulation of the plexus causes

↑ed tonic contraction, or “tone,” of the gut wall,

↑ed intensity of the rhythmical contractions,

slightly ↑ed rate of the rhythm of contraction, and 

↑ed velocity of conduction of excitatory waves along the gut wall, causing more rapid movement of the gut peristaltic waves.

Submucous

the submucous plexus innervates the glandular epithelium, intestinal endocrine cells, and submucosal blood vessels.

primarily involved in the control of intestinal secretion

neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, the amines norepinephrine and serotonin, the amino acid GABA, the purine ATP, the gases NO and CO, and many different peptides and polypeptides.

The parasympathetic supply to the gut is divided into cranial and sacral divisions

cranial fibers provide extensive innervation to the esophagus, stomach, and pancreas and somewhat less to the intestines

Sacral division innervates the distal half of the large intestine and all the way to the anus.

parasympathetic cholinergic activity generally increases the activity of intestinal smooth muscle

Teej Festival of nepali hindu women where song and dance is essential!!!!!!!!!

Teej (Nepali: तीज) also known as Haritalika  Teej is a fasting festival for Hindu women. It takes place in 3rd day of Shukla Paksha in Bhadrapada or Bhadra month of  Nepali calendar and Hindu calendar, normally falls in the month of August or early September. Dedicated to the Goddess Parvati, commemorating her union with Lord Shiva, the festival is celebrated for marital bliss, well-being of spouse and children and purification of own body and soul. The festival is a three-day-long celebration that combines sumptuous feasts as well as rigid fasting. Teej have other importance as women create  new songs about recent happening and  throw shutire over  males specially who dominate over their husband and daughter in laws.

Preparations for the festival begin well in advance. Fabric stores, sarees and suit outlets are stocked with the bridal red color fabric. Women spend most of the time shopping when Teej is near. Women mainly shops for golden ornaments, new clothes specially red one, bangles etc. Teej gives women an opportunity to dress like the newly wed. They worship the epitome of divine marriage - Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati, for longevity and prosperity for their husband and family.

 Teej in Nepal is celebrated in three days. The first day of Teej is called Dar Khane Din. On this day the women, both married and unmarried, gathered together in a place and dance in special folk songs called teej song and eat delicious foods. In remote areas the married women goes at her mother’s place and dance and eat there.

     The second or the fasting day of the Teej festival is dedicated to pujas and prayers. The holy Pashupatinath temple is thronged by women in red sarees to offer prayers to Lord Shiva. Women gather in the temple and circumambulate the Lingam (phallic symbol of the Lord) adorned with flowers, sweets and coins. The beautifully decorated idols of Shiva and Parvati are offered fruits and flowers to seek blessings of the divine spirits. Lighting of an oil lamp is very important part of the puja ceremony. It is said that the oil lamp should be kept lit all night to avoid bad omen.   

The third day of the Teej Festival is called Rishi Panchami. On this day, the seven sages of the Hindu pantheon are worshiped by women in a belief that it will cleanse all sins of the previous year. Womenfolk take a holy bath with red mud found on the roots of the sacred Datiwan bush, along with its leaves. After three hours of rigorous cleansing, they come out purified and absolved from all sins. After this they sit in a semicircle while a priest sitting in the middle chants devotional prayers.